The United States Government Is The Best Policy - 1597 Words

The United States government serves as a purpose to improve and protect the lives of all American citizens. The functions of the United States government varies and operates on several different levels that include national, state, and local. Each of these levels helps the government make certain demands of its citizens. These demands and guidelines have been practiced, maintained, and developed through history. This is to promote the general welfare of the society. The American people are provided safety and order with the purpose of the United States government. Separation of Power, Congress, and Executive Branch in the United States government enables constant guidance through pleasant and difficult times. It has been proven that the†¦show more content†¦To make sure the government has limited authority, the founding fathers formed the concept, Separation of Powers. This system limits the power of government by dividing authority among three separate, but equally powerful , branches. The Legislative Branch writes laws, the Executive Branch orders them, and the Judicial Branch reviews them. This separation is achieved symbolically in the Constitution itself. It is important to remember, however, that although power may be balanced within the government, it does not come from the government. An important amenity the Constitution makes is that the government must derive its power from the people. The very first words of the Constitution are, â€Å"We the People of the United States†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (U.S. Constitution), a phrase the founding fathers chose very carefully. It is the people who give the power to the government and provide limitations. The people elect government officials to help guide the government s tasks. The people have an opportunity to elect new officials to replace those whose policies have become unpopular.†¨ In the Constitution, Article I states that there are two separate legislative bodies; a House of Representatives and a Se nate. Together they are called the Congress. These two bodies of Congress work together to make the laws and regulations for the country. Congress has to provide many ideas for legislative action. The House and Senate cannot possibly deal with many matters. Committees are

Martin Luther King Jr. vs. Malcolm X - 997 Words

Martin Luther King Jr. vs. Malcolm X Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X both fought for the same goal, but had different ways of achieving this goal. They both fought against civil rights and were leaders in the civil rights movement. The way they were brought up is a good explanation for their differences; King was brought up in a wealthy family, while X was raised in the ghetto to a poor family. Both fought against unfair laws, Social Discrimination, and Racial segregation, but they both had different ways of going about this. Malcolm X was born on May 19, 1925 and was raised in a completely different atmosphere than King, an atmosphere of fear and anger where the seeds of bitterness were planted. The burning of his house†¦show more content†¦X believed in violence and that blacks need to develop themselves before anything was going to change. King believed the only way to end racial segregation was to Integrate, with whites and blacks going to school together, and living in peace together. Proof of this is in Kings I have a Dream speech. King explained he had a dream where white children and black children would grow up together and live peacefully. Malcolm X believed in separation of the two races but wanted equality. He told the black community that the only way to be equal is to separate from the white race. Malcolm X made speeches saying how all blacks should go to Africa and start their own society. Both Malcolm X and King spread their messages through powerful, hard-hitting speeches. Nevertheless, their intentions were delivered in different styles and purposes. As you can see Malcolm X and Martin Luther King JR both had very different views on conquering the laws, discrimination, and racial segregation that made it hard for blacks to live a comfortable life in the 60s. Malcolms views came from his Islamic faith and poor upbringing, and Kings came from his Baptist faith and his more comfortable life style. Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are both remembered as leaders who fought for a difference in black America. Both tried to bring hope to blacks in the United States. They also tried to instillShow MoreRelatedMalcolm X vs. Martin Luther King Jr.1723 Words   |  7 Pagesthis momentous time in United States history. Speeches during this period served as a means to inspire and assemble a specific group of people, for Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X it was the black community that needed to rise up in hopes of achieving equal rights and voting rights for the blacks. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were two of the most prominent leaders and orators at the heart of the Civil Rights Movement. Although both leaders possessed the same objectives, theirRead MoreMalcolm X Vs. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay1717 Words   |  7 Pagesthis momentous time in United States history. Speeches during this period served as a means to inspire and assemble a specific group of people, for Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X it was the black community that needed to rise up in hopes of achieving equal rights and voting rights for the blacks. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were two of the most prominent leaders and orators at the heart of the Civil Rights Movement. Although both leaders possessed the same objectives, theirRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. vs. Malcolm X1263 Words   |  6 Pages* Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X are two people on different ends of the scales, with totally different up-bringings. * King was brought up by a rich black family,with a good education, and a good chance at life. He was a black aristocrat, and a wealthy man. * Malcolm X was brought up in the ghetto, and had to learn to defend himself against racist white children. 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It must be fought for, protected, and handed on for them to do the same.† In fact, American history has had a great deal of leaders that brought change by improving the lives of others. These leaders introduced new ideas, models, and theories toRead MoreCivil War Movement : Martin Luther King Jr Malcolm X1212 Words   |  5 Pages Research paper History 11.21 December 23, 2014 Civil War Movement: Martin Luther King Jr/ Malcolm X Many years after blacks had received citizenship and the right to vote there was still much bias against them. Because of their skin color African Americans hadn’t been treated fairly and did not have the same rights as whites. In theRead MoreA Research on The Civil Rights Movement1448 Words   |  6 PagesMovement (Martin Luther King Jr. Vs Malcolm X) and will be focusing on two important icons that have an important part of African American History. I am going to further discuss in this research paper, â€Å"What were the views of Martin Luther King. 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Domestic Violence Theory Effects free essay sample

Domestic Violence: Theory, Effects A ; Interventions Essay, Research Paper The female is, as it were, a mutilated # 8230 ; a kind of natural lack. It is non appropriate in a female character to be manfully or clever. The male is by nature superior and the female inferior. # 8221 ; Introduction Domestic force has been present in our society and an recognized pattern of many civilizations for 100s of old ages. Up until the late 1800 # 8217 ; s, a adult male in this state had the right to castigate his married woman until the pattern was declared illegal in two provinces ( Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence Manual, p. B-8 ) . Old English Common Law allowed hubbies to crush their married womans provided that the stick they used was non thicker than his pollex ; hence the phrase # 8220 ; Rule of Thumb # 8221 ; ( Heart on a Chain [ Video ] ) . Although times have changed in this respect and Torahs have been enacted in order to protect adult females from maltreatment, the fact remains that Acts of the Apostless of domestic force occur every 15 seconds in the United States. Over the past two decennaries, extended research has been done on the kineticss of domestic force. Through this research, many of the facets of domestic force are better understood. Assorted research workers have theorized the causal mechanism behind domestic force, have studied the features of both the female victim and the male culprit, and have researched the effects on work forces, adult females, and the unseeable victims of domestic force: the kids. Unfortunately, despite all that has been learned, domestic force is still prevailing in today # 8217 ; s society. The inquiry is why? In an effort to reply this inquiry, this paper will show and discourse many of the theories of domestic maltreatment that have transpired as a consequence of old ages of research. Additionally, the emotional, psychological, and behavioural impact on the female victim and her kids will be presented through the empirical grounds. Third, this paper will besides show attacks to intercession schemes used with household members involved in force. Finally, this paper will speculate, based upon the research, why, in today # 8217 ; s society, does domestic force still be? Definition A ; Description Domestic force is defined as the physical or emotional maltreatment of an grownup or kid by a household member or friend. Physical maltreatment includes forcing, slapping, or grabbing, throwing objects, kicking, seize with teething or punching, crushing up, ravishing or sexually working an grownup or kid and/or endangering with a arm. Emotional maltreatment includes name naming, doing gags that are take downing, verbally endangering physical maltreatment, insulating or unreasonably restricting an grownup or kid, and/or the perennial humiliation of an grownup or kid ( Woman Aware [ Brochure ] ) . A individual of any age or sex may be a victim of domestic force. However, harmonizing to statistics, the bulk of victims are adult females, kids, and the dependent aged ( Woman Aware [ Brochure ] ) . Additionally, although there are many reported cases and services available to work forces who are victims and to those in homosexual, sapphic, and bisexual relationships, this paper will concentrate on the bulk ; that is the male culprit and the adult female victim. Literature Review Etiology of Domestic Violence Due to the complexness of household force with its many signifiers, there has been a figure of aetiologic theoretical accounts that have developed over the old ages ( Kashani A ; Allen, 1998 ) . The followers is a description of some of these models for which the apprehension of domestic force has been based on. Psychoanalytical Theory stems from the belief that single personality traits which develop early in life, predicts the chance that a individual will be a victim of or submit to force. These features can and hold been reported as psychiatric diagnosings. For illustration, a common maltreatment scenario could be explained through the diagnosing of # 8220 ; dependant/self-defeating personality disorder. # 8221 ; That is, a adult female who tolerates an opprobrious relationship may exhibit one or all of the undermentioned behaviours: a form of self-defeating behaviour such as taking people and state of affairss that finally lead to failure. She may reject the aid of others and respond in negative ways. The reaction of others will so be a beginning of injury for the person. Furthermore, the adult female may non follow through with actions that are important to her ability to obtain her ends. Therefore, with regard to this theory, it would so look that the adult female possesses an conge nital personality trait that may predispose her to digest an opprobrious relationship ( Harway, 1998 ) . Sociobiologic theories focus on the work of Darwin and impression that the physical features and behaviours of species develop over clip through the procedure of natural choice ( Rowe, 1994 ) . Harmonizing to Kashani and Allan ( 1998 ) , since behaviours that help one # 8217 ; s offspring to last are considered functional, parents are expected to put more resources in one of their ain kids than in a non-relative kid. Sociobiologic theoreticians would explicate that the map of matrimonial force can be found in the possible intent of coercive control in matrimonies which can be viewed as being motivated by the male demand to vouch his paternity by guaranting conformity through power and control ( Kashani A ; Allan, 1998 ) . This could connote that the hubby has justification in the strategy of development to prosecute in opprobrious tactics # 8230 ; all to see the continuance of future coevalss. The theory of Intergenerational Transmission which borrows thoughts from Social Learning Theory, involves the relationship between parental force and subsequent kid force during maturity. Specifically, it is believed that abused kids are more likely to go maltreaters, victims, or violent wrongdoers ( Kashani A ; Allan, 1998 ) . For illustration, a survey conducted by Rynerson and Fishel ( 1993 ) surveyed parents who were opprobrious and found that 38.8 % of work forces and 32 % of adult females have had memories of their male parents physically mistreating their female parents. However, after farther reappraisal of the research, the writers believe that retrospective informations is erstwhile undependable due to the fact that the parents may fault others for their opprobrious behaviour ( Kashani A ; Allan, 1998 ) . Therefore it would look that although the statistics show a clear correlativity, # 8220 ; faulting others # 8221 ; could be construed as an alibi for opprobrious behav iours, therefore taking duty from the maltreater. Additionally, with regard to adult females sing force, Harway ( 1993 ) relates the Theory of Learned Helplessness to the Social Learning Theory and how it may explicate the inactive nature of beat-up adult females. Harway ( 1993 ) believes that the beat-up adult female perceives the state of affairs as hopeless and finally loses the ability to believe that anything she does will impact the result. Although this peculiar theory has been criticized by some research workers, it has been altered to the extent that # 8220 ; learned weakness does non ensue instantly from maltreatment, but as a reaction over clip to battered adult females # 8217 ; s realization their spouses # 8217 ; violent behaviour can non be controlled # 8221 ; ( p.32 ) . This remains as one of the taking accounts of the erudite behaviour of beat-up adult females ( harway, 1993 ) . Social Psychological Theory explains the strong emotional bond that forms between the battered adult female and her spouse, sometimes referred to a traumatic bonding ( Painter A ; Dutton, 1985 ) . This term is defined as a strong emotional tie that develops between two people when one individual harasses, beats, threatens, maltreatments, or intimidates the other. This intermittent behaviour between the twosome has been identified as the Cycle of Abuse. The rhythm of maltreatment consists of three phases: ( a ) the tenseness edifice stage, ( B ) the ague banging phase ; ( degree Celsius ) the loving and remorseful stage or honeymoon stage ( Painter A ; Dutton, 1985 ) . Harway ( 1998 ) concurs that it is the insistent nature of the physique up, the injury during the banging, and the rapprochement that follows that helps bond the battered adult female to her batterer, traumatically, and causes her to stay in the relationship. Furthermore, Harway ( 1998 ) explains that the period insta ntly following the banging is experienced by the adult female as one of utmost aversive rousing, together with feelings of self-blame, depression, and weakness. These feelings leave the beat-up adult female vulnerable and dependant for some period of clip after the incident. During the loving stage, the batterer # 8217 ; s composure, sensitiveness, and behavior serve to alleviate the adult female # 8217 ; s frights, temporarily. This allows her to believe that she is in control and encourages her hopes of alteration, believing that the force will non repeat. By acting as the ideal loving hubby during this stage, he reduces the aversive rousing he has created and reinforces the likeliness that she will remain in the relationship ( Harway, 1998 ) . Family Systems theoreticians hypothesize that the force that ensues between a twosome is a part of both spouses and is seen as a consequence from their demand to keep a form of equilibrium, ( functional or dysfunctional ) in the system. Work force and adult female in violent relationships are said by household systems therapists to be sing troubles in dividing from their households of beginnings and are utilizing force to modulate the closeness/distance subject in the relationship ( Hanson, 1993 ) . This theory, nevertheless, is criticized by many research workers due to the theory # 8217 ; s deduction of incrimination, particularly on the adult female. There are a figure of theories that attempt to explicate domestic force. Regardless of which theory one may order to, one can non overlook the common nexus that underlies many of the theories. This common nexus is the power and control mechanism that exists in a domestic force state of affairs and is the footing of still another theory. The Duluth Model is based entirely on the power and control mechanism and has become the theory most widely used for understanding domestic force. In 1980, after a barbarous domestic maltreatment homicide, the Duluth, Minnesota Domestic Violence Intervention Project ( DAIP ) found a community willing to experiment with new patterns to face the job of work forces # 8217 ; s force against adult females ( Pence A ; Paymar, 1993 ) . In 1984, based on group interviews with adult females go toing educational categories offered by the DAIP, a model was developed for depicting the behaviour of work forces who physically and emotionally mistreat their spouses. Harmonizing to Pence and Paymar ( 1993 ) , many of the adult females criticized theories that described buffeting as sporadic, instead than a changeless force in their relationship. Extra unfavorable judgment was given to the theories that attributed the force to work forces # 8217 ; s inability to get by with emphasis and those that failed to admit to the full the purpose of hitters to derive control over their spouses # 8217 ; actions, ideas and feelings ( Pence A ; Paymar ) . As a consequence of these interviews and educational Sessionss 200 battered adult females designed the Power and Control Wheel. ( See Figure 1 and Table 1 ) The Power and Control Wheel illustrates that domestic force is portion of a form of behaviours instead than stray incidents of maltreatment or sporadic detonations of pent up anger, defeat, or painful feelings. For illustration, the stereotypic behaviour utilizing # 8220 ; male privilege # 8221 ; explicitly shows how power is a dominant factor in the male culprit # 8217 ; s mind. The behaviour of male privilege which includes handling adult females like retainers, doing all the determinations, moving like the maestro of the palace, and being the 1 who defines work forces and adult female # 8217 ; s functions, ( Pence A ; Paymar, 1993 ) . Additionally, the behaviour utilizing coercion and menaces through assorted agencies illustrates the demand to hold control over another in an opprobrious relationship. Further, Pence A ; Paymar ( 1993 ) explain that the tactics used by hitters reflect the tactics used by many groups or persons in places of power. Each of the tactics described on the Power and Control Wheel are typical of behaviours used by groups of people who dominate others such as those groups whi ch sustain racism, agism, classism, heterosexism, antisemitism, and many other signifiers of group domination. Individual Characteristics of Men and Women in Violent Relationships The Female Victim. Most surveies of beat-up adult female involve those victims who sought safety in a shelter after a serious incident of force, which most likely represents a prejudice toward economic and societal disadvantage ( Jaffe, Wolfe A ; Wilson, 1990 ) . However, due to the fact that surveies have begun to analyze broader community samples, it has been found that victims originate from all socioeconomic backgrounds ( Jaffe, Wolfe A ; Wilson, 1990 ) . Further, Harway ( 1998 ) adds that: # 8220 ; there is no grounds that the position that a adult female occupies, the function she performs, the behaviour she engages in, her demographic profile, or her personality features systematically influence her opportunities of confidant victimization # 8221 ; ( p. 35 ) . For illustration, Harway ( 1998 ) cites an illustration of research conducted on 403 beat-up adult females, ages 17-59 old ages. The consequences indicated that the adult females were of in-between category position, good educated and employed. Therefore, this would look to bespeak that going a victim of domestic force could and does go on to anyone. The Male Perpetrator. Harmonizing to the research, there are two distinguishable variables that have been correlated to be characteristic of the male culprit. These variables include the male # 8217 ; s childhood experiences and usage of intoxicant. The features of male culprits are consistent with regard to the issue of childhood experiences. In most instances, a batterer normally has had cases of childhood maltreatment or witnessed maltreatment between parents ( Pence A ; Paymar, 1990, Kashani A ; Allan, 1998 ) . For illustration, Pence and Paymar ( 1990 ) explain that the history of a adult male who batters is frequently a history of childhood maltreatment, exposure to male function theoretical accounts who have shown hostile attitudes toward adult females and exposure to adult females detesting environments ( Pence A ; Paymar, 1990 ) . Alcohol maltreatment tends to be a factor in those work forces who batter. Alcohol has been found to be present in about half of all reported incidents of married woman assaults. However, most research workers indicate a correlational relationship instead than a causal ( Jaffe, Wolfe A ; Wilson, 1990 ) . However, as Pence and Paymar ( 1190 ) have found in their work with these work forces that although their hurting and cicatrixs must be taken into consideration, the fact remains that this non merely explains the logical thinking behind the force, but besides provides an alibi for its continuance. In other words, it is non improbable that an maltreater will impute a banging incident to his usage of intoxicant. The adult female so believes that if the intoxicant maltreatment ceases, so will the maltreatment. Unfortunately, this is normally non the instance. Although the usage of intoxicant does escalate the banging incident, it does non do the maltreater to mistreat ( Pence A ; Paym ar, 1990 ) The Children of Domestic Violence The research on domestic force and kids has, for the most portion, focused on kids who are direct victims of physical maltreatment. It has merely been in the last decennary that research workers have addressed the issue of the # 8220 ; indirect # 8221 ; victims of household force ( Fantauzzo, Boruch, Beriama, Atkins, A ; Marcus, 1997 ) . The literature overpoweringly concludes that there is a battalion of damaging effects on the kids who are exposed to domestic force. The effects on kids witnessing domestic force include Attention Deficit Disorder, Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome, bodily ailments, projecting behaviours such as aggression, choler, non-compliance, and internalising jobs such as anxiousness, depression, low ego regard, societal behavioral and academic jobs ( Holden, 1998 ) . In a general sense, it is believed that a kid witnessing domestic force is equated to psychological maltreatment of a kid. By definition, psychological maltreatment is a direct onslaught by an grownup on a kid # 8217 ; s development of ego and societal competency ( Peled A ; Davis, 1995 ) . The psychological ill-treatment of child informants can take three signifiers: terrorizing, populating in a unsafe environment, and exposure to restricting and negative function theoretical accounts. The kid is terrorized when the grownup culprit of force verbally assaults the kid, creates a clime of fright, toughs and frightens the kid, and makes believe that the universe is a hostile topographic point to populate. Therefore, it is suggested that the culprit is non merely mistreating the adult female but besides the kids who witness the force ( Peled A ; Davis, 1995 ) . The followers is a treatment of some of the possible damaging effects on kids cause by domestic force. Attachment Affects Attachment Theory suggests that a immature kid usually works back and Forth between geographic expedition of the environment and checking in with an attachment figure. In times of emphasis, geographic expedition is reduced and contact with a secure base is enhanced. Therefore, babies who are exposed to domestic force may endure serious effects with regard to fond regard ( Holden, Geffner A ; Jouriles, 1998 ) . Their basic demands for fond regard may be disrupted by un-normal modus operandis. The female parent, who is under emphasis due to the force, may non adequately run into the demands of a little baby. The baby may so acknowledge this distance and a deficiency of handiness which will in bend affect the natural bond that forms between female parent and kid ( Jaffe, Wolfe A ; Wilson, 1990 ) . Further, since these kids do non see the heat, fondness, and caring from parents that is associated with healthy parent-child dealingss, the trust between a kid and a violent parent may be badly strained ( Kashani, Shekim, Burk, A ; Beck 1997 ) . For illustration, females witnessing maltreatment as kids report that their relationships with their parents were characteristic of the insecure attachment manner. This insecure attachment manner associated with familial force may so take to developmental jobs or abnormal psychology ( Kashani, et al. , 1997 ) . Internalizing Effectss Although a strong correlativity has non been documented between household force and a subsequent diagnosing of major depression, research workers have found that kids may exhibit many symptoms of depression ( Kashani, et al. , 1997 ) . For illustration Kashani, Shekim, Burk A ; Beck ( 1997 ) found that there is a important relationship between kids # 8217 ; s ego reported fright of future force and a diagnosing of depression. Additionally, certification has shown that kids who witness maltreatment may attest symptoms of depression, such as the sad affect, societal backdown, and low self-pride ( Kashani, et al. , 1997 ) . The kid may besides get down to fault himself when the female parent shows aggression in order to protect the kid but non in protecting herself. The Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence explains that while work forces use violent Acts of the Apostless for power and control, adult females use them in ego defence in order to remain alive or to protect themselves from serious hurt ( PCADV Manual, 1998 ) . These maternal inclinations might besides forestall their kids from set uping a meaningful context for understanding the maltreatment and may supply, es pecially for their girls, a theoretical account of inactive and uneffective job work outing. Therefore, this passiveness can be reflected in school by low academic accomplishment, school phobic disorder, troubles in concentration, and societal isolation. Interceding Factors It is of import to province that much of the research on the effects of kids witnessing domestic force is contingent upon interceding factors, and therefore these factors have been taken into consideration when decisions have been made on the badness of the effects. These interceding factors include the undermentioned. Badness of Violence Witnessed Children who witness physical force between their parents seem to hold more behavioural jobs than kids from households in which high parental struggle exists ( Peled, et al. , 1995 ) . Through their research, Fantuzzo, et al. , ( 1997 ) found that kids who were exposed to both physical and verbal force exhibited more behavioural jobs than kids who witnessed merely verbal maltreatment. Child Abuse It is estimated that between 30 % and 40 % of all kids of beat-up adult females are abused themselves and estimations based on those shacking in shelters are even higher. Child informants of force between parents who were besides physically and sexually abused were found to hold more behavioural jobs than those informants who were non abused ( Peled, et al. , 1995 ) . Gender/Age Studies of the influence of gender on behavioural jobs in child informants provided a assortment of consequences and were dependent upon the kid # 8217 ; s age ( Peled, et al. , 1995 ) . In respects to preschool age kids, misss were less empathic and showed more anxiousness than male childs. Preschool age boys manus more externalizing and internalizing job behaviour and more aggression, depression, and bodily symptoms ( Kolbo, et al 1996 ) . With regard to school age kids, Peled, et al. , ( 1995 ) study that girls displayed more overall behavioural jobs, aggression, and internalising jobs than male childs. However, Jaffe, et al. , ( 1990 ) found that school age male childs had more behavioural jobs in general, particularly with regard to aggression. Adolescent males exposed to matrimonial force were more likely to run off from place and to hold suicidal ideas than adolescent females ; nevertheless, college age adult females reported more depression than males who were raised in a similar background ( Peled, et al. , 1995 ) . Race Race has been found to besides be a mediating variable for the effects of witnessed force on the kid. It was found that white kids in opprobrious families have more behavioural jobs than their minority opposite numbers ( Kolbo, et al. , 1996 ) . Resiliency Resiliency, as defined by household healers in the context of matrimonial force, is the ability to efficaciously get by, whereas the kid tries to reconstruct or keep equilibrium under endangering fortunes ( Berman, 1993 ) . Researchers believe that this ability has a positive affect on a kid # 8217 ; s individuality formation. Markward ( 1997 ) studies that some abused adult females may go on to be nurturing parents and that the impact of the good illustration set by a non-abusive grownup is underestimated. A female parent who gives intending to the maltreatment, such as chronic alcohol addiction, unemployment, or deficiency of instruction, may supply a positive cognitive adjustment to the violent events, therefore easing the natural resilience in the kid ( Markward, 1997 ) . Furthermore, rearing accomplishments that may be decreased in violent contexts and may motivate the kid ( who has a positive dignity ) to # 8220 ; fill in the parenting gaps. # 8221 ; Although the message through force is perceived as ineffective job work outing between parents, the resilient kid may seek out other relationships through supportive grownups and equals. Younger kids receive the message that honoring relationships do be and that people can be available in times of demand. For the stripling who has the increased capacity to utilize abstract thought, these relationships will supply them a forum to conceive of and experiment with relationships that are different from their parents ( Berman, 1993 ) . Unfortunately, Jaffe, et al. , ( 1990 ) points out that being resilient is non tantamount to being happy and secure. These resilient kids who desire to offer protection and nurturance to their female parents and younger siblings may take on functions that violate the parent/child relationship. They are put into a place of holding to turn up excessively rapidly and take on more duty which can be developmentally inappropriate ( Jaffe, et al. , 1990 ) . Domestic Violence Interventions for Victims, Children, and Perpetrators Harmonizing to Edelson and Eisikovits ( 1996 ) it has been more than 20 old ages since the first formal battered adult females # 8217 ; s shelters were established in both Great Britain and the United States. In the past decennary entirely, there have been a enormous figure of shelters established around the universe, social intercessions have been developed and public policies created to turn to the issue of domestic force ( Edelson A ; Eiskovits, 1996 ) . Advocacy services, occupation preparation, and transitional lodging have been added to the services provided by shelters across the state. Additionally, plans for violent wrongdoers have been established and services for kids who witness force at place have besides been developed ( Edelson A ; Eiskovits, 1996 ) . However, although battered adult females # 8217 ; s plans in the United States provide aid to larger Numberss of adult females and their kids each twelvemonth, these adult females and kids merely represent a little pa rt of those in demand of aid ( Edelson A ; Eisikovits, 1996 ) . The followers is a description and treatment of some of the intercessions that provide aid to those involved with domestic force. Victim Interventions Currently recommended professional criterions for supplying single therapy to victims of domestic force focal point on guaranting the safety of the adult females before trying any other intercession. These safety demands can be met through abode in a shelter or through legal agencies ( Hansen A ; Harway, 1993 ) . Legal Intervention. In 1976, Pennsylvania passed a jurisprudence to supply protection for people who are or were abused by household members. This jurisprudence, the Protection from Abuse Act, allows battered adult females and other victims of domestic force to register a civil action and obtain a tribunal order against farther maltreatment. However, non anyone who is abused by person near to them is eligible for a protection order under this act. Merely household or family members are eligible. Harmonizing to the Act, household or family members refers to partners, or those living as partners, parents and kids, current or former sexual or intimate spouses, or individuals who portion biological parentage ( PCADV Manual, 1998 ) . The Protection from Abuse Act defines four types of maltreatment: ( a ) Trying to do or deliberately, cognizing or recklessly doing bodily hurt, serious bodily hurt, colza, spousal sexual assault or nonvoluntary pervert sexual intercourse with or without a arm ; ( B ) placing by physical agencies, another in fright of at hand serious bodily hurt ; ( degree Celsius ) the imposition of false imprisonment ; ( vitamin D ) physically or sexually mistreating minor kids ( PCADV Manual, 1998 ) . Although this peculiar intercession is readily accessible, many adult females do non seek out this option for assorted grounds. Such grounds include the unsympathetic and sometimes degrading attitude of jurisprudence enforcement and tribunal officers, the loss of pick to retreat the ailment, being forced to attest, and compulsory apprehensions. However, victims # 8217 ; responses in one survey suggest that the legal procedure can and does do a difference ( Erez A ; Bellknap, 1998 ) . Several respondents stated that when jurisprudence enforcement and tribunal officers show understanding and grasp of their state of affairs and the instance is treated with continuity and compassion, domestic force victims can prolong the defeat they face, or defy the troubles they have to get the better of, to make a satisfactory declaration ( Erez A ; Bellknap, 1998 ) . Curative Intervention. In respects to curative intercession for victims, Hansen and Harway ( 1993 ) explain that intervention demands for adult females of domestic force should turn to the issues of authorization, standardization, societal networking and long-run protection. These adult females are subsisters and should be treated as such. Additionally, healers should integrate as portion of their program to include outside bureaus that will supply societal support and referrals. In working with beat-up adult females, healers may happen that economic concerns and protection issues may be more pressure to the adult female than the effects of the banging. It so becomes clear that the healer must be more than a impersonal 3rd party ; instead, the healer must take on extra functions to help the victim of domestic force ( Hansen A ; Harway, 1993 ) . Perpetrator Intervention. Harmonizing the PCADV Manual ( 1998 ) , work forces who batter normally do non seek professional aid and when they do, they usually withdraw from the plan within a few Sessionss. The condemnable justness system can be used as purchase to coerce work forces who batter into come ining and finishing therapy. Edelson ( 1996 ) points out that in many instances, it is non the menace of imprisonment but the fright of losing his married woman that prompts a adult male to seek aid. The culprit normally enter a plan at a crisis point when, for illustration, separation has occurred and divorce seems at hand. However, counsellor # 8217 ; s stress that salvaging the relationship is non the facilitator # 8217 ; s primary aim, stoping the force is first and foremost ( Edleson, 1996 ) . Further, when handling work forces who batter, one course of study used is based upon eight subjects which represent an facet of nonviolent and respectful relationships. These eight subjects are depicted in the Equality Wheel ( See Figure 2 ) . In contrast to the Power and Control Wheel, the behaviours and facets of an classless relationship shown on the wheel become the manner offered to work forces for classless and mutualist relationships with adult females. For illustration, one of the behaviours depicted on the wheel refers to common regard among spouses. Respect in an classless relationship regard is displayed through listening non-judgmentally, being emotionally confirming and understanding, and valuing each other # 8217 ; s sentiments. ( Pence A ; Paymer, 1993 ) . Couples Therapy. In instances of domestic force, the intervention of the twosome together has been widely criticized due to the many attacks of household therapy that focal point on the mutual interactions among household members. This attack can ensue in therapy that will give co-responsibility for the force ; or, in an attempt to avoid incrimination may ensue in no duty for the force and non turn to the aggressive actions at all ( Hansen A ; Harway, 1993 ) . Additionally, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence takes a powerful stance on the issue of twosomes reding. The alliance labels twosome # 8217 ; s guidance as # 8220 ; intercessions to avoid # 8221 ; ( PCADV Manual, 1998, p. 111-2 ) explicating that it is an inappropriate intercession that farther endangers the adult female by promoting the maltreater to fault the victim by her analyzing her function in the maltreatment. Many adult females have been beaten viciously following twosomes reding Sessionss in which they disclosed force or coercion ( PCADV Manual, 1998 ) . Berg-Cross ( 1997 ) agrees that when force exists in a matrimony or relationship, the twosome must be seen individually in therapy so that the aggressive spouse # 8217 ; s try to take duty for their behaviour and make a point where they are motivated to command their aggressiveness. Research is still seeking to determine at what point marital/couple therapy is most appropriate. However, it is of import that both persons feel comfy with this type of intervention, and that the adult female is non fearful of unwraping in forepart of her spouse. It is besides imperative that if there are drug and intoxicant issues present within the relationship, these jobs must be treated before the twosome engages in conjoint therapy ( Berg-Cross, 1997 ) . Children. Women # 8217 ; s concerns for their kids and the turning consciousness of the effects of force on kids have led to many new services for kids ( Peled, 1994 ) . Although reding kids of domestic force was normally done on a one to one, informal footing, intercessions are non concentrating on formal plans to turn to kids # 8217 ; s demands. A study of federally funded presentation undertakings for kids in shelters found that the most common recommended guidance technique is group reding and play therapy ( Peled A ; Davis, 1995 ) . Evaluation of one plan showed that group intercessions have important success in altering kids # 8217 ; s self esteem, attitudes about force, and practical accomplishments in exigency state of affairss ( Wolf, Jaffe, Wilson, A ; Zak, 1994 ) . Persons who have designed specific group plans identify four major ends for child informants of domestic force: ( a ) To interrupt the secret of maltreatment in their households ; ( B ) to larn to protect t hemselves ; ( degree Celsius ) to see the group as a positive and safe environment ; ( vitamin D ) to beef up their ego regard ( Peled A ; Davis, 1995 ) With regard to crisis intercession with kids, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence indicates that this type of guidance should assist a kid reclaim his/her life through stressing his/her strengths, enabling him/her to experience powerful and in control once more. However, a common response is to deliver the kid and protect from farther injury which will merely reenforce their feelings of impotence ( PCADV Manual, 1998 ) . Summary A ; Decisions In drumhead, during the past 20 old ages, much has been researched, studied and learned about domestic force. Research workers have theorized as to the causes of domestic force ; they have determined the harmful effects and effects on both the culprit and the victim. These effects have been proven to be damaging to the physical, psychological, emotional well being of the victims. In add-on to the research and subsequent findings, alliances have been formed, plans established, and Torahs have been enacted with the ultimate end of protecting, helping, and educating those affected by domestic force. Recently, the focal point of domestic force now includes agencies to educate those who are indirectly affected by domestic force. Pennsylvania, in peculiar, has approved support for a plan that aims to educate jurisprudence enforcement and legal officers. However, with all the cognition gained, and the repetitive passion that has been put into the battle against domestic force, it is still a continual, upseting, and prevailing force in today # 8217 ; s society. The inquiry is why? Based on research conducted, it is my feeling that this inquiry is an overpowering, frustrating, and a apparently hopeless mystery. Nonetheless, after extended reappraisal of merely a little part of the literature on this topic, it seems to me that the manner in which to get down the procedure of battling the job of domestic force for future coevalss must get down with the instruction and socialisation of our kids. In our society, males are taught and encouraged to be dominant, aggressive, independent and in control. Females are taught and encouraged to be inactive, submissive, and dependant. Although equality between the sexes has made enormous paces and stiff sex function socialisation is more elusive than earlier, these outlooks reach the really nucleus of what domestic force is based on ; power and control. Possibly this is where the reply to stoping domestic force can be found. Berg-Cross, L. ( 1997 ) . Couples Therapy. California: Sage. Berman, P. , S. ( 1993 ) . Impact of opprobrious matrimonial relationships on kids. M. Hansen A ; M. Harway ( Eds. ) , Battering and household therapy: A feminist position ( pp. 134-147 ) . California: Sage. Erez, E. , A ; Belknap, J. ( 1998 ) . In their ain words: Battered adult females # 8217 ; s appraisal of the condemnable processing system # 8217 ; s responses. Violence and Victims, 8 ( 3 ) , 251-267. Fantuzzo, J. , Boruch, R. , Beriama, A. , Atkins, M. , A ; Marcus, S. ( 1997 ) . Domestic force and kids: Prevalence and hazard in five major U.S. metropoliss. Journal of the American Academy of Child A ; Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, ( 1 ) , 116-122. Hanson, M. ( 1993 ) . Feminism and household therapy: A reappraisal of feminist reviews of attacks to household force. In H. M. Hansen A ; M. Harway ( Eds. ) , Battering and household therapy: A feminist position ( pp. 69-82 ) . California: Sage. Haroway, M. ( 1993 ) . Battered adult females: Features and causes. In H. M. Hansen A ; M. Harway ( Eds. ) , Battering and household therapy: A feminist position ( pp. 29-42 ) . California: Sage. Holden, G. W. ( 1998 ) . Children exposed to matrimonial force: Theory, research, and applied issues. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Jaffe, P. , G. , Wolfe, D. , A. , A ; Wilson, S. K. ( 1990 ) . Children of beat-up adult females. ( Vol. Ed. ) , Developmental Clinical Psychology and Psychiatry: Vol. 21, California: Sage. Kashani, J. , H. , A ; Allan, W. , D. ( 1998 ) . The impact of household force on kids and striplings. ( Vol. Ed. ) . Developmental Clinical Psychology and Psychiatry: Vol. 37, California: Sage. Kolbo, J. R. , Blakely, E. , H. , A ; Engleman, D. ( 1996 ) . Children who witness domestic force: A reappraisal of empirical literature. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11, ( 2 ) , 281-293. Markward, M. J. ( 1997 ) . The impact of domestic force on kids. Families in Society, 71, ( 1 ) , 66-70. Painter, S. L. A ; Dutton, D. ( 1985 ) . Patterns of emotional bonding in beat-up adult females: Traumatic bonding. International Journal of Women # 8217 ; s Studies, 8. 363-375. Peled, E. ( 1996 ) . Secondary victims no more: Refocusing intercession with kids. J. L. Edleson A ; Z. C. Eisikovits ( Eds. ) , Future intercessions with beat-up adult females and their households ( pp. 125-154 ) . California: Sage. Peled, E. A ; Davis, D. ( 1995 ) . Groupwork with kids of beat-up adult females: A practician # 8217 ; s manual. California: Sage. Penny, E. A ; Paymar, M. ( 1997 ) . Education groups for work forces who batter: The Duluth theoretical account. New York: Springer Printing Company. Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence ( 1998 ) Manual Rowe, D. C. ( 1994 ) . The bounds of household influence: Genes, experience and behaviour. New York: The Guilford Press. Wolfe, D. , A. , Jaffe, P. , Wilson, S. , K. , A ; Zak, L. ( 1994 ) . A multivariate probe of kids # 8217 ; s accommodation to household force. G. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatick, A ; M. A. Straus ( Eds. ) , Family maltreatment and its effects: New waies in research ( pp. 228-244 ) . California: Sage. Wolfe, D. , A. ( 1991 ) . Choosing participants and presenting them into the plan. Preventing physical and emotional maltreatment of kids: A intervention manuals for practicians ( pp. 45-62 ) . New York: Guilford Press. Womans Aware ( 1998 ) . [ Brochure ] .

Master thesis paper writing service

Thesis writing at the Masters level is a composite piece of creative ideas and enlightening inferences that provide illustrative insights appertaining to a defined philosophical paradigm or theory. A master thesis paper provides elaborative arguments in supportor against the topic, depending on the specific position or premise of the writer. A thesis can be considered a comprehensive essay that highlights the particular aspects regarding a certain theory or a subject area related to the various social, technological, scientific and economical domains including other arenas of ecumenical import. A well integrated collection of ideas and arguments drawn from the evaluation and analysis of facts or concepts related to the thesis subject or philosophical paradigm that provide justifications for the authors premise results in a winning thesis that has the potential and substantial material for the inspiration of future research endeavors. Students at the Masters level often have to write thesis as part of their academic assignments that must be comprehensive and elaborative enough to provide illuminating facts relevant to the subject or thesis topic. This requires analytical abilities, reasoning prowess and academic writing competencies along with proper planning for the master thesis writing process. An expertly concocted thesis that includes all relevant sections such as the literature review,research methodology overview, critical findings and analysis results along with supportive material that provides leverage to the authors premise or stance can contribute to the academic achievements of the student while ensuring him or her high grades and accolades. At times when the philosophical paradigms associated with the thesis or the subject being researched is challenging, students or academic professionals tend to look for professional master thesis paper writing service to help them grasp the intricate details of the thesis topic and the concepts involved in the philosophical theory or paradigm. It is however important to pick a reliable writing service that has the technical expertise to assist students with their master thesis writing. Academic Writing Services has the professional experience and the technical know-how of providing master thesis paper writing services. Their panel of consultants and academic writers have a strong flair for research and content creation with a focus on meeting technical specifications and general academic paper requirements. They also provide free consultation for the mentoring of students regarding their master thesis topic and its related concepts along with writing services to help students achieve their academic goals and to deliver outstanding thesis to their academic institutions. is a creative hub of the most skilled and competent academic writers, researchers and consultants to ensure you shine in your Academic career Our team of skilled writers and consultants are committed to providing our valued customers with top quality academic papers and projects to help them excel at their academics.We value customer focus as it is one of our core values that drives our passion to deliver the best and to help students shine at their college and universities. ORDER YOUR THESIS NOW!

Xenophobia the History of Immigration Progress in the U.S free essay sample

Xenophobia: The History of Immigration Progress in the U. S Containing some of the most economically and culturally vibrant urban centers in the world, the United States remains the economic and the cultural hub of the world. However, along with nation’s prosperous achievements in such fields, the United States has been struggling with variety of problems caused among its diverse groups of population. Indeed, since â€Å"colonizing† this land in the early 1500s, the United State seems to have had a problem with just about every race/sex/religion/nation possible for one reason or another.Oftentimes this lack of understanding escalates into weird laws, unfair labor practices, cultural polarization, and eventually lots of people being shot by lots of other people. The United States citizenry has a long and fairly intense history of collective distrust for people society doesn’t understand or doesn’t want to understand, and often the target for collective distrust has included immigrants throughout the history. We will write a custom essay sample on Xenophobia: the History of Immigration Progress in the U.S or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Take Los Angeles for example, which has the largest concentration of immigrants in North America.More than 224 languages are spoken in the city, and over 50% of the population is foreign-born (Moore 13). Immigrants include motivated factory workers as well as entrepreneurs and professionals. Add to their presence native-born Americans, and it is easy to see why America is a place where dreams are often realized. Despite the fact that so many experts agree that the productivity and hard work of immigrants improves the U. S. economy, the immigration issue has been grossly misrepresented by the media and certain politicians.With increasing awareness of how to deal with illegal immigrants, the issue has moved to the center. It is not only an economic issue. It is a cultural and social issue with which Americans have wrestled for a very long time. Xenophobia is a term meaning dislike and/or fear of that which is unknown or those who are different from oneself, especially foreign people. The xenophobic movement was certainly â€Å"ethnocentric,† as it set up a standard for judging all comers to the United States with its own understanding of American culture.Xenophobia is such a complex term that it is often closely related to concepts like prejudice, discrimination, racism, and nativism (Knobel 7). Indeed, this trend of hate seems to still exist today. There are endless debates on illegal or undocumented immigrants living in the United States, and both sides seem to have a strong base for their arguments. In fact, they also have long history behind their arguments. John F. Kennedy once said in 1958, â€Å"Immigration policy should be generous; it should be fair; it should be flexible.With such a policy we can turn to the world, and to our own past, with clean hands and a clear conscience† (Kennedy 9). However, his plan has never been adopted. Even before John F. Kennedy’s time, America suffered from immigration issues. Xenophobia was exhibited towards Irish immigrants who suffered as they tried to adapt to the new society. But the immigrant matter became much more serious after 1863 when the Central Pacific railroad hired Chinese laborers, and the Union Pacific hired Irish laborers to construct the first transcontinental railroad.Then other ethnic groups started to immigrate to the United States. From 1910 to1920, 2 million Italians arrived. Every time a new ethnic group was introduced to the society, xenophobia was exhibited towards them by the original members of the society. The target has changed from Italians to Jews, Japanese, Germans, Mexicans, Russians, and Middle Easterners, but the phenomenon was similar with each category of people. For instance, one New York Times article shows how the society slowly accepts new arrivals.With the largest wave of immigration since the turn of the century raising New York Citys foreign-born population to 28 percent, a poll done in 1993 found that most residents said there were too many immigrants in town and added that while most are law-abiding, they had ma de the city a worse place to live (McFadden). The article that was written to discuss the findings of the poll shows how xenophobia works. Oftentimes there are no good reasons to support xenophobia. Rather it is simply a hateful feeling towards those who are different from insiders. Xenophobia is not only found in America’s local communities.It also exists in America’s courts as well. The influence of xenophobia on juries may affect adjudication in the federal as well as state systems (Moore 7). Sadly, the cultural prejudice has been affecting the nation’s institutions within and without. In one historic example, a District of Delaware court stirred up concerns over xenophobia, prejudicing the jury when attorneys for an American company suggested that if the patent holder won the lawsuit, Motorola, which employs American workers, would have to stop making cellular phones, and all of these jobs would be lost to the Japanese (Moore 8).In one way or another, whether it is direct or indirect, the existence of xenophobia in the courts is clear and obvious. Although changing attitudes toward immigrants is bringing positive changes to the courts, there are many more decisions that need to be made fairly and correctly on immigrants in the United States. Most recently, the movement towards giving the millions of undocumented migrant workers who live here and contribute to the country economically, culturally, and socially the opportunity to become legal residents of the United States is growing stronger.Of course, there are strong opponents who disagree with such movement tow ards legalizing the undocumented migrant workers. Yet, there is no verdict on whether or not undocumented migrant workers should earn their legal status in the United States. Regardless of judging which is right or wrong, it is necessary for either side and for all people to realize that xenophobia must be taken out of the argument in order to stay balanced and be fair. Hopefully, after 500 years of repeating this ‘hate’ cycle, American society is getting better at understanding each other’s needs.

Assureâ€I Mean, Ensureâ€Good Writing

Assure- I Mean, Ensure- Good Writing Assure- I Mean, Ensure- Good Writing Assure- I Mean, Ensure- Good Writing By Mark Nichol Once upon a time, professional and amateur writers alike could count on books and publications to help guide them in writing clearly, coherently, and concisely. They knew that when they opened a book, a magazine, or a newspaper, they could generally be assured that they would find carefully crafted prose that adhered to principles of proper grammar, syntax, and usage and would not only enhance comprehension of the content but also serve as a model for their own effective writing. Unfortunately, that assurance has long since ceased to exist across the board. Over the last quarter-century, socioeconomic forces have eviscerated the editorial infrastructure in the publishing world. Into the late twentieth century, at least most book publishers were assiduous in making sure not only that fiction and nonfiction narratives were well constructed but also that attention was paid to the mechanics of sentence structure. In the periodical world, veteran magazine and newspaper editors passed their skills in telling stories (and finessing them down to the detail of using just the right punctuation for the job with each keystroke) to younger editorial staff members, preserving a tradition of editorial excellence even for niche magazines and small-town papers. Not every publication adhered to such high standards, of course, and objectivity was not always maintained (or sought), but readers usually could count, at least, on being exposed to good, clean writing. Those standards have now eroded, thanks in large part to budget cuts in editorial departments and a deterioration in the informal newsroom mentor-protà ©gà © tradition, in addition to a growing indifference in our society to excellent writing. Some publications keep the bar high, but the general readership is exposed to much mediocre writing in print and online media alike, and sloppy prose from one writer infects other writers like a virus, passing on clichà ©s, errors, and poor habits. One recent example stood out for me- perhaps a persnickety detail, but symptomatic of an erosion of precision in usage that encourages lazy writing. In a local metropolitan newspaper, an editorial about the crisis of homelessness misused assured not once, not twice, but thrice: 1. The city needs to evaluate and track people in homeless programs to assure that they are put in the most suitable settings. 2. San Francisco needs to work together with Oakland and San Jose, which are experiencing their own struggles with homelessness, to assure that they are not merely shifting the burden to one another. 3. It would be a colossal waste of money to make the necessary investments in supportive housing and other services without a commensurate commitment to assure that the people who are offered this array of assistance are no longer afforded the option to flout the law with impunity. Careful writers know that assurance does not occur in isolation; it is given. (One would say, for example, â€Å"I assured them that they are not merely shifting the burden to one another.†) The proper word for this context is ensure. (Insure, meanwhile, is best confined to matters of indemnity.) In popular usage, these words are used interchangeably, and historically, they have not always been employed distinctly even by more erudite writers, but preserving such distinctions helps us maintain a rich, diverse language. I’m all for relaxed, flexible usage in in appropriate contexts, but maintaining a firewall between ensure, insure, and assure, or between eager and anxious or between enormity and enormousness, or any such fraternal twins or triplets, helps writers produce and readers consume high-quality prose. If so many book and periodical (and online) publishers have abandoned their traditional role as standard-bearers for good writing, where does the developing writer (read: every writer) go for guidance? Some publishers still strive to deliver well-written content, and many corporate and organizational websites are impressively edited, but ultimately, the careful writer will consult writing guides such as this site and the many excellent writing manuals available in print and sometimes online. (Search for â€Å"book reviews† on DailyWritingTips.com for recommendations- or cautions.) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Avoid Beginning a Sentence with â€Å"With†7 Tips for Writing a Film ReviewAffect vs. Effect

Small and Medium Enterprises Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Small and Medium Enterprises - Essay Example OECD (2009) in one its recent reports states that SMEs happen to be key generators of employment and income while driving the innovation and growth potential. In the OCED area half of the labour force has been employed by the SMEs only. Figures of UK employment indicate that out of 4.7 million business establishments in UK 99.3 percent were small firms with about 50 employees, while only 0.6 percent firms were there with 50-249 employees. With globalisation, the management of SMEs have now started giving more thought towards the viability of the venture in the long-term before making strategic decisions for acquiring different types of resources. The global financial crisis has also impacted the functioning of this sector quite adversely, because they do not have the desired backup of resources, which is available to the larger enterprises. While on the one hand many multinational enterprises have started leveraging the economies of operation in different regions or countries the SME s are bound to look for ways to contain the damage within the limited areas of their operation. While it is believed that even under normal circumstances, SMEs require specific policies and programmes for their survival and growth, under the global financial crisis, it appears all the more crucial that they are in a position to find out a friendly government. While on the one hand the government wishes to have more investment from abroad, thus facilitating the MNCs entry into the country, on the other the safeguard of SMEs interests happens to be a major political issue in the country. Definition Though SMEs exist in good numbers everywhere around the globe, but there is no uniformity on the definition of SME because of practical considerations. Each country has different classifications of SMEs. Some countries define SMEs based on the number of employees, while others depend on the value of the assets. In general, the lower employment limit for a small enterprise is between five to ten workers and the upper limit is between 50 to 100 workers. Similarly the upper limit for a medium enterprise is usually set between 100 and 250 employees. However, it is difficult to adopt one definition of SMEs in all the countries, because the state of the SMEs also depends on the size of the markets or the economy in which they are operating. For example, a firm with 50 employees in the USA would be considered smaller (relative to the size of the U.S. economy) than a firm of this size in Bolivia. In UK, sections 382 and 465 of the Companies Act 2006 define SME based on the turnover and numbe r of employees1. A company with a turnover of not more than 3.26 million and not more than 50 employees is considered a small company and a company with turnover of not more than 25.9 million, with not more than 250 employees is termed as medium sized company. Importance of SMEs Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play an important role in a nation's economy. They are resources for innovation and they provide a wide base of employment. In addition, SMEs are the most essential sector for a healthy dynamic market economy. Chew

Research in Motion Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

In Motion - Research Paper Example This enhances timely reception and delivery of messages which improve efficiency in business processes. Using this approach, the company introduced the Blackberry as its core product which had a good market reception upon introduction (McQueen, 2010). Despite initial surges in profits, RIM’s products have not remained competitive because of increasing competition from other companies offering better communication platforms and gadgets. Email and SMS have been outdated with introduction of better and more sophisticated communication devices. Samsung Electronics has its Galaxy line of products that allow for direct, video conferencing which enables two people to communicate, via a network, from two different locations. This decline in revenue started in 2011 has made it adopt some survival tactics to remain competitive by reducing operational costs. The company, initially lauded as a high recruiter, shed off 2000 workers in one instance in 2011 thereby drastically reducing its human resource capabilities. Layoffs do not give a company a good image as there are many employees who initiate criminal litigations to demand for their right to stay at their places of service. RIM has organized its employees in teams; this is delegating overall tasks to groups of workers who identify management issues and address them. According to McQueen (2010), one thing lacking in RIM is application of a harmonious working relationship, with effective communication channels among existing employees. This is to improve this teamwork only shown in writing, in the organization’s website. It has had numerous conflicts; a worker wrote a letter to the board of directors in June, 2011 accusing the CEO of having lost direction of the company. The following are human resource initiatives the company should incorporate to remain relevant in an increasingly competitive telecommunications market: The company

Assignment 12(775) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment 12(775) - Essay Example pproach employed in selecting a school for the research where he also describes how they consulted the proposal as well as informing the school community (Bello, 2006). During the negotiation and consultations, he had a special focus on matters they had more attention on. He then concludes with distribution of written materials hence closing the negotiations coinciding with this phase. He then comes up with an appraisal of this process and makes up questions that will ease the growth not only on the initial phase but also the following studies (Bello, 2006). However, each piece of research has different conditions surrounding it so these conditions are what determine the way a research will occur. A research project started by the author and his lecturer in March 2000 by having a collaborative action research project running in a school in order to establish the influence it had on teachers’ professional development. Despite the problems bound to experience, they had to make this collaboration happen by taking advantage of the knowledge and time they had to obtain an advantage by working in collaboration (Bello, 2006). With participants in this research having different points of view, it can lead to acquisition of more knowledge as well as useful skills when commencing other studies, whether separately or in collaboration. In picking a school for their research they followed the criteria same as Stake’s criteria, which focused on schools that offer many opportunities in enquiring new knowledge. For instance, the school they picked located in Spain because teachers valued teamwork, family participation was encouraged, and it depended on local administration for management (Bello, 2006). Reflecting these processes will come in handy as it helps us understand how the action research is important in enhancing learning, making up collaborating cultures within institutions, as well as reducing the gap between theory and practice (Bello, 2006). It promoted

Understanding The Russian Sphere Of Influence Politics Essay

Understanding The Russian Sphere Of Influence Politics Essay The aim of this chapter is to bring out the elements behind Russias quest to maintain a sphere of influence around itself. In doing this, one should not just look at present Russian politics and recent attempts by Russia to restore its former sphere of influence. One has to look briefly into the history of Russia from the time of the Tsars and during the Communist regime. The Tsars had always desired to create a sphere of influence which would act as a belt of protection for Russia. One has to look at Russias geography to understand this key element in Russian foreign policymaking throughout the centuries. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed and Russia lost various regions which were the ex-Soviet Republics. Since then, Russia has retreated progressively. NATO expanded eastward in Europe since 1994 causing Russia to be suspicious and resentful. After the September 11 attacks, the USA established military bases in Central Asian countries to support its military operations against the Taliban and Al Qaeda in Afghanistan and initially Russian President Vladimir Putin gave his support, though he would resent long-term American military presence in what Russia perceives its sphere of influence. In the Far East, Russia faces a rapidly rising China as a potential superpower. So, it is understandable that Russian foreign policymakers have to counterbalance all these factors. Russia is not just a European power but also an Asian power. All these factors contribute to the multivector characteristic in Russian foreign policymaking. One must not forget that Russia also has its economic interests i n the Central Asian region and not just military and political interests. The setting-up of the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) and the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) show how Russia is trying to adapt to its loss of empire. One must not forget that the collapse of the Soviet Union took place twenty years ago and that Russia is still going through what is called its imperial syndrome. This chapter has the aim of demonstrating the change and continuity in Russian foreign policy through its history to the present day. 2.1 The Tsarist roots When Russia began to expand as an empire, the Tsars always had the intention to use to newly conquered lands as belts of protection around Russia. This can be traced back to the time of Ivan III, also known as Ivan the Great. He started by what historian call the collecting of the Russian lands which was followed by wars with Poland in the West (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 18). Ivan IV, known as Ivan the Terrible, conquered lands from the Tatars and Russia reached the Caspian Sea (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 19). In 1613, Mikhail Romanov was elected Tsar, hence starting the 304-year Romanov dynasty. Under his reign and his sons reign, Russia fought eight wars with Poland and it retook Kiev, which had the capital city of the first Russian state, the Kievan Rus (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 19). So, in this time frame, one can see Muscovy expanding its territory and sphere of influence. The ascension of Peter I, known as Peter the Great and his subsequent reign (1689-1725) had a lasting effect on Russian foreign policy. He is known for his secularization and modernization of the Russian Empire along European lines (Hosking, pg 76). He too focused on expanding Russian territory and had one of his first successes when he captured the fort of Azov from the Turks, thus giving Russia access to the Black Sea (Hosking, pg 76). He then proceeded to war with Sweden and the victories he attained there such as the capture of the river Neva in 1703, Narva and Dorpat in 1704, gave Russia access to the Baltic (Freeze, pg 114). The Treaty of Nystad with Sweden in 1721 crowned Russias achievements in the Baltic and Sweden lost its place as a European great power to Russia (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 20). With these conquests, Peter the Great brought Russia closer to Europe as he had always desired and Russian foreign policy took a new dimension from then on. In 1689, there was the Nerchinsk Treaty between the Russian Empire and China where the two powers agreed to divide their spheres of influence which led to China keeping Mongolia under its dominion and Russia keeping land north of the Amur river (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 20). After the death of Peter the Great, there was the Kyakhta where Russia and China agreed to set up formal diplomatic relations and paved the way for trade between the two powers (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 20). Under Catherine the Great, Russia continued to expand its territory and this is seen in the partitions of Poland which brought Belarus (White Russia), Lithuania and Western Ukraine under the Russian realm (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 20). Russias military forays southwards resulted in two wars with Turkey and these culminated in the treaties of Kutchuk Kainardji (1774) and the Treaty of Jassy (1792) which gave Russia control of the north Black sea coastline from Azov to Odessa (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 20). After the victory against Napoleon in 1815 and the Congress, Russias Tsar Alexander I was able to demonstrate Russian power to Europe (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 21) and Russia added Finland and lands in the south and Central Asia to its dominion. Nicholas Is reign (1825-1855) saw Russia turning its attention on the Ottoman Empire which was referred to as the sick man of Europe and this is seen in the Russian ambition to take Constantinople and get naval access to the Mediterranean Sea and the base at Sevastopol (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 21). However, one can see the role of ideology behind Russias expansionism such using the protection of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire to justify its wars with Turkey, which one of them resulted in the independence of Greece (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 21). In the second half of the 19th century, Russia began looking eastwards again and started to violate the Treaty of Nerchinsk by penetrating deeper into Chinas territory. In 1860, Vladivostok was founded and in 1860, the two powers signed the Treaty of Peking where Russias new gains in the Amur region (legalized since 1858) were consolidated and China and Russia agreed on the new border along the Ussuri river (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 24). In Central Asia, Russia took Tashkent in Uzbekistan in 1865 and Merv in Turkmenistan in 1884 (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 24). To reassure Britain that it was not going to pursue its conquests south to India, Russia signed an agreement with Britain that it was going to limit itself to northern borders of Afghanistan (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 24). One must not exclude the ideology of Pan-Slavism from Russian foreign policymaking during the time of the Tsars which had considered Moscow as the Third Rome and the Tsar as the protector of all Orthodox Christians (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 25). This led to tensions with the Ottoman Empire resulting in a war in 1878. In the early twentieth century, Russia had tension with Japan over territories in the Far East and this culminated in a Russo-Japanese war in 1904-1905, which to Russias humiliation, Japan won (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 27). So, Russias ambitions in the Far East were limited to the northern part of Manchuria, the northern half of Sakhalin island and had to accept Koreas incorporation in the Japanese sphere of influence (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 27). What was the motivation behind the Tsars aim of expanding their realm? Robert H. Donaldson and Joseph L. Nogee give a variety of reasons. The geography of Eurasia may be one of the explanations for Tsarist Russia to acquire all those land to create a protective barrier around itself. Russia also wanted ice-free harbours which led to its ambitions to take harbours in the Black Sea and the Baltic as well as Pusan in modern South Korea culminating in the war with Japan in 1904-1905 (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 29). The autocratic ideology of the Tsarist system is also listed as a reason. The Tsars expressed their autocratic character by pushing for conquering of new lands and military expeditions (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 30). Even Henry Kissinger, in his book, Diplomacy, agrees with the view that Tsarist autocracy led Russia to behave in that way in the international relations of the time (Kissinger, pg 140) 2.2 Continuity under the USSR The continuity with the Tsars thinking was most clear under Joseph Stalins rule. In August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed an agreement known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact where they agreed to share Eastern Europe between their spheres of influence. Through the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, Russia regained those lands such as Eastern Poland, the Baltic states, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (Kenez, pg 135). The motivation to expand Russias territory could not be clearer. In October1944, there was the Percentage Agreement between British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to divide spheres of influences of their states in Eastern Europe (Dunbabin, pg 87). The element of continuity with the Tsars thinking of expansionism is clear. After the Second World War, the USSR did not make it a secret that it wanted to keep Eastern Europe under its orbit as well as export its Communist ideology throughout the world. The USSR was using the banner of Communism and proletarian internationalism to spread its influence around the globe. The West responded by the enactment of the Truman Doctrine which had the intention of containment (Best, Hanhimaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 220). In June 1947, the European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan was launched in order to help Europe recover and stem the tide of Communism (Best, Hanhimaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 222). This was part of the containment policy. On the 4th of April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was set up to challenge Soviet hegemony (Best, Hanhimaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 223-224). The Soviet response was to create the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, COMECON in 1949 to create sociaist planned economies in Eastern Europe (Best, Hanh imaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 219). In 1948, the USSR expelled Yugoslavia of Jozip Broz Tito because Tito did not want to have Stalin dictating to him how to govern the country (Best, Hanhimaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 219). In May 1955, the USSR set up the Warsaw Pact as a response to NATO as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said we wanted to make an impression on the West (Dunbabin, pg 221). In 1956, Hungary under Imre Nagy rebelled because it did not want to remain under Soviet domination and left the Warsaw and the Soviets response was to send tanks to crush the uprising (McCauley, pg 340). In 1968, Czechoslavakia, under the leadership of Alexander Dubcek, attempted to create socialism with a human face, unlike the rigid Soviet communism which is known as the Prague Spring. Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev was alarmed by this since he feared it could spread and create a domino effect and the USSR would lose its sphere of influence in East-Central Europe. The USSR tried to exert pressure on Dubcek (Dunbabin, pg 568) but when it saw that it was not enough, it launched a military invasion on 20th August 1968 to crush the Prague Spring and remove Dubcek from power (Dunbabin, pg 569). This showed that the Sov iet Union feared that different interpretations of Marxism among its satellites would lead to collapse of Communism and lose its strategic sphere of influence. Due to the upheavals that took place, the Brezhnev leadership came up with the Brezhnev Doctrine which claimed that it was the sole right of the USSR and the Warsaw Pact to take action against socialist countries which deviated from Soviet Communism (Best, Hanhimaki, Maiolo, Schulze, pg 274). The message the USSR sent to the rest of the world was that it will not tolerate any changes to the political-economic system it had created in East Europe, its sphere of influence. This was because it felt highly threatened by those changes. The West gave its response in the Helsinki Final Act in 1975 where it accepted the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe but the USSR agreed to accept the human rights basket, which would have serious consequences for the USSR in the 1980s (Dunbabin, pg 571). 2.3 Post-Communist Russia and Sphere of Influence Thinking in Current Russian Foreign Policy At the collapse of the Soviet Union, many former Soviet Republics which were also part of the Tsarist Empire became independent. Russia had lost those lands which had provided a belt of protection for Russia for centuries. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991and up to the late 1990s, the newly constituted Russia began to use the term near abroad for its former Soviet republics (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 163). In this part, the setting up of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC), Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) and Russias participation in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and their usefulness to Russia in maintaining its sphere of influence will be analyzed. This part aims to put under focus Russias aims and aspirations behind the setup of these organisations. The interests Russia has in keeping Central Asian states, Ukraine, Belarus and other ex-Soviet states will be analyzed. Russia has and still claims that it uses multilateralism to achieve its aims of maintaining its sphere of influence and checking other powers such as China in the East. To analyze this in more detail, the focus will be on Russias behavior both in the institutions it is part of and leads and its behavior towards the smaller ex-Soviet republics. Russias activities in the CSTO and SCO will also be analyzed as well as its successes and failures in preserving its sphere of influence. 2.3.1 What are Russias interests and motivations, and how does it view itself and the countries surrounding it? The best way to start the subject is to look into Russias interests. Historically, the ex-Soviet republics were part of the USSR and before the October Revolution of 1917. It is not restricted to this reason though. Russia has economic interests as well as competing new powers for influence. This is most felt in the Central Asian region. For Russian political analyst Dmitri Trenin, this is sphere of interest rather than sphere of influence, as he points out in his article in The Washington Quarterly. Trenin outlines three types of interests that Russia has the ex-Soviet states. The first includes the military and security reasons, secondly, Russias economic interests and thirdly, the cultural aspect. Regarding Russias security and military interests, Trenin mentions the CSTO as a way for Russia to maintain its influence and dominance in most of the ex-Soviet republics and also to combat Islamic extremist movements (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). Trenin goes on to refer to t he fact Russia would like the CSTO to on the same level with NATO and that this would create the new European security architecture thus leading to the legitimization of the primacy of Russia in its former Imperial and Soviet subjects (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). Trenin maintains that Russias intention is halt US and NATO encroachment in its perceived zone of responsibility and he refers to the August 2008 war with Georgia. By taking a heavy-handed attitude towards Georgia, Trenin suggests, Russia was sending a clear message to NATO that it would accept anymore intrusion in the ex-Soviet space (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). So, the real reason behind the war was Mikhail Saakashvilis explicit intention to get NATO membership for Georgia. Russia also thinks that the USA is using democracy encouragement in order to draw the ex-Soviet states away from Russias influence (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). The second reason, the economic interests of Russia, also cannot be ignored. Russia has millions of foreign workers who come from the CIS member states, a factor which gives Russia an upper hand in dealing with its neighbours (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). Another important economic factor is energy. The ex-Soviet states around the Caspian Sea are rich in energy resources and Russian energy companies such as Gazprom, the Russian state-owned gas corporation, would like to be the ones that have control over these resources especially oil and natural gas (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). Russia has also worked towards economic integration in Eurasia and this is seen in the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) and Russia has made no secret of its wish to have a customs union with Kazakhstan and Belarus (The Washington Quarterly, October 2009). So Russia also uses economic means to preserve its influence and its interests. In the aftermath of the 2008 economic crisis, Russia has forked out billions in funds to help the economies of the former Soviet Republics to recover (The Washington Quarterly). Thirdly, there is the cultural aspect. Dmitri Trenin makes a reference towards the presence of millions of Russian inhabitants in post-Soviet countries and how the Kremlin tries to use the case of Russian minorities for its political advantage. This has been listed as one of the objectives of Russian foreign policy in the Russian Foreign Policy Concept of 2008 signed by President Dmitri Medvedev (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, 12th July 2008). This objective of Russia protecting ethnic Russians in the neighboring countries has also one been one of the first objectives of Vladimir Putin since he first came to power as Russian President in 2000, as outlined by Ingmar Oldberg in his article for the Swedish Institute of International Affairs (The Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2010). Russia has been taking advantage of its cultural predominance to use the Russian minoriti es in the neighboring countries to preserve its influence and has used many methods to try to achieve its objective such as the media, issuing of passports and backing pro-Russian political parties in these states (The Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2010). One has to appreciate the fact that Russian culture, especially the language is a very strong factor. 2.3.2 Organisations which Russia uses as part of its objective of preserving its sphere of influence In this section, the focus is on organisations such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO), Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). The aim of this part of the chapter is to give a short history of each of these organisations and more importantly, Russias role in them and what Russia hopes to achieve by being active in these organisations. Is Russia using these organisations as a new way to portray itself as upholding the principles of multilateralism while at the same times keeping the post-Soviet republics under its influence? Does Russia behave as an equal partner or is it the dominant member due to its military strength? The best way to answer these questions is to analyse these organisations and Russias role in them. 2.3.2.1 Commonwealth of Independent States The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was born out of the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union. After the Soviet Union collapsed, 15 newly independent states emerged. Russia wanted to use the CIS in order for it to be able to maintain its influence in the newly independent states (Nogee and Donaldson, pg 165). It wanted to create The Baltic states kept away from joining and Georgia left the organisation after its August 2008 war with Russia. Ukraine, which in the early 1990s was under the leadership of Leonid Kravchuk did not want much integration in the CIS in order to preserve Ukraines independence (Donaldson and Nogee, pg 166). As a sign of continuity with the Tsarist and Soviet foreign policy thinking, Russia placed huge importance to the CIS as way of protecting itself with friendly countries, and this was mentioned in the 1993 Russian Foreign Policy Concept (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 154). With the establishment of the CIS, Russia was aiming for a common econ omic space, a common market, co-ordinated customs policies, cooperation in the environmental protection, developing communication and transport systems and combating organized crime (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 154). Much of these ambitions aims were not achieved and in 2005, President Vladimir Putin himself complained that the CIS did not achieve what Russia envisioned a decade earlier (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 154). Stina Torjesen, in a contribution to the book The Multilateral Dimension of Russian Foreign Policy, lists some reasons why Russia did not achieve as much as it hoped for in the 1990s regarding the CIS and CIS integration. Torjesen mentions reasons such as that coordination was not executed well, that when it came to implementing policies, Russia was either slow or didnt implement them at all, causing the other partners to be irritated, Russia in the 1990s was going through economic hardship which led to difficulty in implementing proposals and that Russias behavio r was still zero-sum instead of being a multilateral partner (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 155). Russia still sought to be the dominating party and sought primacy over other partners. So Russia deserves part of the blame for the failure to achieve the earlier objectives behind the creation of the CIS. Lilia Shevtsova, in her book Lonely Power, believes that Russia does not treat its neighbours as equals and cares about its primacy (Shevtsova, pg 90). Shevtsova makes a reference to a speech by President Dmitry Medvedev at the Council of Foreign Relations where the Russian President stated that Russia had a sphere of privileged interests (Shevtsova, pg 89). There were attempts by some post-Soviet republics to try to lessen their dependence on Russia and this is seen in organisations they set up such as GU(U)AM (Mankoff, pg 247). This consisted of Georgia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan (which left the organisation), Azerbaijan and Moldova. GUAM as organisation was first set up in October 1997 (Tsygankov, pg 126). Uzbekistan left the organisation in May 2005 (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 173). After the summit in Kiev on 23rd May 2006, GUAM had a new name: Organisation for Democracy and Economic Development GUAM (Organisation for Democracy and Economic Development GUAM). The August 2008 war with Georgia also spoke volumes about Russias efforts to preserve its sphere of influence. Moreover in May 2009, Russia sent in extra 1,800 troops into Abkhazia and South Ossetia which inflamed suspicions in the West that Russia was up to its tricks again, that pursuing its domination of its neighbours as well as punishing Georgia for the pro-Western path it had taken (The Jamestown Foundation, 6th May 2009). After all, President Medvedev had made no secret of Russia wanting to be responsible for what he described as Russias privileged sphere of influence (The New York Times, 31st August 2008). US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and US President Barack Obama did not agree with Dmitry Medvedevs position (OpenDemocracy, 20th April 2009). Russias cutting of the gas supply due to a crisis with Ukraine was interpreted as Russia using its energy resources to punish those countries which took positions against Russia such as Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko, claims which Russia denied and Russia counter-attacked by claiming it was a quarrel over payments (Valdai Club, 13th January 2009). Lately, Russia has had problems over gas with Belaruss President Alexander Lukashenko but analysts claim that Russia uses its position of energy supplier to bend its neighbours to its will. This was the case with Belarus in June 2010 since Russia had been very irritated with Lukashenkos lack of recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states and retaliated by banning milk from Belarus (The Economist, 24th June 2010). 2.3.2.2 Collective Security Treaty Organisation The Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) is the military organisation Russia uses in order to maintain its influence in the post-Soviet states. One has to remember that out of all the former Soviet states, Russia is the most militarily and economically powerful and these factors do give it primacy in the CSTO. From the beginning, Russia intended that the CSTO will be used to create protection and security for Russia by having an organisation which included the former Soviet states (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 182). Before the CSTO was established in 2002, there was an agreement, the Collective Security Treaty (CST), signed in May 1992 at Tashkent by Russia, Armenia and the former Central Asian Soviet republics but Turkmenistan remained out (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 183). After the fall of the USSR, Russia and the former Soviet states began discussing how to have a single military space under the CIS (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 183). So the CST, and later the CSTO, was to work under the CIS. The objective of a creating one military structure was not achieved because each state chose to have its national army but the CST helped to bring the new states armies to cooperate when a threat emerged (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 183). Throughout the 1990s, there were discussions on what type of military organisation the CST members national armies were going to set up (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 183). The discussions were between whether there should be a decision-making structure similar to the one of NATO, which the majority of CST members wanted, or having a hierarchical structure, as Russia and Uzbekistan wanted (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 183-184). In the end a mixture of both was chosen. One can remark that the fact that Russia wanted a hierarchical structure tells much about what its role in the CST was going to be. It sought to be the leader and not an equal with the other partners. By the mid-1990s, the CST had been successful in dealing with many challenges and Russia, through its military advantage, played a central role in helping Central Asian states to safeguard their borders and training their armies (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 184). But there was still no proper organisation of a supranational nature and this was seen in the civil war in Tajikistan in 1992, when the CST members did not work together and Russia and Uzbekistan helped the Tajik government (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 184). In 1993, peacekeeping troops from CST and CIS states Russia, Kazak hstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan did come to Tajikistan aid, but Russia was the dominant partner and its actions, such as supporting militarily the Tajik government of the day, were not multilateral (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 185). In this incident, one can see Russia acting as the dominant partner and this is something which the other states took note of. So Russia had some part of the blame for the failure to develop a fully-fledged multilateral military organisation. Its actions contradicted its objective of collective action. The maintenance of its sphere of influence was what mattered most. However, in the late 1990s, there was military cooperation between the CST members which was led by Russia such as military exercises in 1999 and 2000 (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 185). In October 2000, the CST members proceeded to cooperate on the issue of terrorism and this culminated in an agreement in Bishkek between Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to create an anti-terrorist center where they could share intelligence on terrorists (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 185). On May 25th 2001, cooperation increased and this led to the creation of the Rapid Deployment Forces to deal with security in the region (Eurasianet, 25th May 2001). This increase in cooperation led to the creation of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) in May 2002 with Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Belarus and Armenia being the members (Wilson Rowe and Torjesen, pg 185). In October 2002, the Charter of the CSTO was signed and it came into effect from the 18th September 2003 (CSTO Official Website). In 2003, Russia began to improve on the already existing facilities at the airbase at Kant in Kyrgyzstan, and in 2006 added more personnel at the base (Mankoff, pg 268). After the 2005 Tulip revolution, the USA had to pay $200,000,000 yearly to keep its airbase at Manas while Russia did not have pay any rent, though it did provide military hardware to Kyrgyzstan (Mankoff, pg 268). In August 2008, after the war with Georgia, Russia asked the CSTO members to recognize South Ossetia (The Times, 30th August 2008) after China and four Central Asian countries had refused to recognize South Ossetia. This is another proof of how Russia wants to use the CSTO to be on par with NATO and trying to stop NATO from encroaching in its neighbourhood. In 2009, the Kyrgyz government announced to the USA that it was going to close down Manas airbase and this was soon after Russia promised more than $2 billion in aid to Kyrgyzstan on condition that the Kyrgyz government tells the US to leave the Manas Airbase (San Francisco Chronicle, 22nd February 2009). The Russia aim to keep Kyrgyzstan under its sphere of influence could not be clearer. On February 4th 2009, at a CSTO summit in Moscow, Russia and the other member states set up the Collective Rapid Reaction Force (CRRF) and it must be pointed out that Russia was once again the dominant player because it had the greater military power and it provided all the weapons, as Aleksei Malashenko from the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Moscow) argued (Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, 4th February 2009). This shows again how Russia uses the CSTO for its central objective of maintaining its sphere of influence. It claims that the CSTO is there to fight terrorism but Russia uses the war on terrorism to make the CSTO one of its foreign policy tools. In fact, one can see this when in the same summit, Uzbekistan demanded special concessions for itself as a condition to join the CSTO (RIA Novosti, 4th February 2009). In May 2010, Belarus decided to contribute over 2,000 personnel to the CRRF after its ratification of the Moscow agreement (RIA Novosti, 26th May 2010). Si nce then, the CRRF members have practiced military exercises in October 2010 (RIA Novosti, 22nd October 2010). However, there were some disappointments and the latest one has been during the political upheaval in Kyrgyzstan when President Kurmanbek Bakiyev was overthrown. Russia did not send peacekeeping troops as Medvedev said that Russia and the CSTO would not participate in Kyrgyzstans domestic unrest (Global Post, 15th June 2010). Russia caused disappointment by its behavior because it showed a lack of consistency and did not act with its CSTO partners to send a peacekeeping mission to Kyrgyzstan. This shows that Russia uses organisations such as the CSTO to give an image that it is working multilaterally with its partners, but in reality it does the opposite. 2.3.2.3 Using economic means to protect interests and maintain sphere of influence The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) Russia does not only create military organisations to preserve its sphere of influence, but it also uses economic means. Since the collapse of the USSR, Russia has tried hard to create customs union and foster economic integration in the CIS and recently it seems to have had some successes. Russia wants to follow the example of European integration and apply it to the CIS. The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) is Russias tool to achieve this objective. Some of the objectives behind creating the CIS were to create a common economic space and a common market and deepening cooperat